Moon Missions: Welcome back to “Science For Everyone”, ABP Live’s weekly science column. Last week, we discussed the reasons why Chandrayaan-2 failed, and what changes the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) had made to ensure the success of Chandrayaan-3. As the country rejoices at the historic soft landing of Chandrayaan-3 on the Moon’s south pole, we discuss this week some of the most interesting successful lunar missions launched till date.
On August 23, 2023, India became the first country in the world to softly land a spacecraft on the lunar south pole. Chandrayaan-3 is India’s third lunar exploration mission, and is expected to operate till the first week of September 2023.
Successful Moon Missions Launched Till Date
A total of 146 Moon missions have been launched till date. Of these, over 110 missions have been successful. India’s Chandrayaan series started in 2008, and NASA’s Apollo program began in 1968. Luna 2 is the first successful Moon mission.
The following is a list of successful and operational Moon missions which achieved firsts and made groundbreaking discoveries.
Luna 2
Launched on September 12, 1959, by the Soviet Union, Luna 2 was the second spacecraft in the Luna series, and the first spacecraft to land on the Moon. Its landing site was near the lunar surface east of Mare Serenitatis near the Aristides, Archimedes, and Autolycus craters, according to NASA. With this, the Soviet Union became the first country to land a spacecraft on the Moon.
The design of Luna 2 was similar to that of Luna 1. It was a spherical spacecraft. Luna 2 found no evidence of radiation belts on the Moon, and confirmed that the Moon has no magnetic field.
Luna 3
Luna 3 was the second spacecraft to reach the Moon, and the first to return images of the far side of the Moon. It was launched on October 4, 1959. The images revealed mountainous terrain on the far side of the Moon, and two dark regions.
Ranger 7
Launched on July 28, 1964, by NASA, Ranger 7 was a huge milestone for the United States because it was the country’s first successful lunar mission after 13 consecutive failures.
The spacecraft captured 4,316 images of the Moon, according to NASA. However, it crashed into the Moon on the northern edge of the Sea of Clouds, or Mare Nubium, a lunar mare located in the Moon’s near side. With the help of the images captured by Ranger 7, NASA identified safe Moon landing sites for Apollo astronauts.
Ranger 8
NASA launched Ranger 8 on February 17, 1965. The spacecraft impacted the Moon’s surface on February 20, 1965. Ranger 8 captured over 7,000 high-resolution images of the lunar surface before its impact on the Sea of Tranquility, a lunar region that was thoroughly studied by Apollo mission planners.
Ranger 9
Ranger 9 was the last in the series of NASA’s Ranger spacecraft launched in the 1960s. Its aim was to take images as it descended towards the lunar surface for impact. The spacecraft was different from its predecessors in the fact that it pointed its cameras in the direction it was heading. It was launched on March 21, 1965.
Zond 3
Zond 3 was launched on July 18, 1965, from Tyuratam, now Baikonur Cosmodrome. It captured pictures of the Moon’s far side. The spacecraft’s science objects were to study the ultraviolet and infrared spectra of the lunar surface, magnetic properties of near-Earth and interplanetary space, cosmic rays, low-frequency galactic radiation, solar wind, and micrometeorites. It captured images of the remaining 30 per cent of the lunar far side.
Luna 9
Launched on January 31, 1966, Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing on the Moon, and the first to transmit photographic data from the Moon’s surface to Earth. The Soviet Union’s Luna 9 proved that the surface of the Moon could support the weight of a lander, and that an object would not sink into the lunar surface.
Luna 10
Luna 10 was launched on March 31, 1966, and the first spacecraft to enter lunar orbit. It was also the first human-made object to orbit a celestial body beyond Earth.
Luna 10’s objectives included achieving the first lunar orbit, obtaining experience in orbital operations, and studying the lunar environment.
Surveyor 1
Surveyor 1 was the first in a series of seven robotic spacecraft sent to the Moon by NASA to prepare for the Apollo missions, and the US’s first spacecraft to make a soft landing on the Moon. It was launched on May 30, 1966. It sent over 11,000 images to Earth from the Moon’s surface.
Luna 12
Luna 12 was launched on October 22, 1966, by the Soviet Union, to study lunar gamma and X-ray emissions to determine the Moon’s chemical composition, the concentration of meteorite streams near the Moon, and anomalies in the gravitational field around the Moon, among others.
NASA’s Lunar Orbiter 2 was launched on November 6, 1966, to capture images of smooth areas of the lunar surface to identify safe landing sites for the Apollo missions.
Luna 13
The Soviet Union’s Luna 13 was the third spacecraft to successfully soft-land on the Moon, after Luna 9 and Surveyor 1. It was launched on December 21, 1966.
Lunar Orbiter 3
NASA launched the Lunar Orbiter 3 spacecraft on February 5, 1967. It was the final mission to capture images of potential Apollo landing sites.
Surveyor 3
Surveyor 3 was launched by NASA on April 17, 1967, and conducted experiments which helped scientists conclude that the lunar surface was solid enough to hold the weight of an Apollo lunar module.
Lunar Orbiter 4 and Lunar Orbiter 5
NASA launched Lunar Orbiter 4 on May 4, 1967, and Lunar Orbiter 5 on August 1, 1967. The aim of these missions was to map the surface of the Moon. These missions photographed 99 per cent of the Moon.
Explorer 35
NASA launched Explorer 35 on July 19, 1967, to study the Moon from lunar orbit for six years. The spacecraft discovered that the Moon created a cavity in the solar wind stream, that solar wind particles impact directly onto the lunar surface, and that the Moon has no magnetosphere.
Surveyor 5
Surveyor 5 was launched by NASA on September 8, 1967. It was the first spacecraft to conduct a soil analysis on the Moon, or any celestial body other than Earth.
Surveyor 6
Surveyor 6 was launched by NASA on November 7, 1967, and landed on the Moon on November 10, 1967. It was launched for a second time on November 17, 1967, making it the first spacecraft to be launched from the surface of the Moon.
Surveyor 7
Launched on January 7, 1968, by NASA, Surveyor 6 was the only spacecraft of the surveyor series to land in the lunar highland region.
Luna 14
Luna 14, launched on April 7, 1968, by the Soviet Union, aimed to test communications systems between a spacecraft at the Moon and ground stations on Earth, in order to prepare for a crewed Soviet mission.
Zond 5
Launched on September 14, 1968, Zond 5 was the first spacecraft to be successfully recovered, and the first to carry Earth life to travel to the Moon, and orbit it. The spacecraft carried tortoises, mealworms, and bacteria, among other living beings.
Apollo 8
Apollo 8, launched on December 21, 1968, was the first crewed mission to the Moon, and made three NASA astronauts the first humans to see the far side of the Moon. These astronauts were Frank Borman, James Lovell Jr, and William Anders.
Apollo 10
NASA launched Apollo 10 on May 18, 1969. The crewed Moon mission carried astronauts Thomas P Stafford, John W Young, and Eugene A Cernan.
Apollo 11
The Apollo 11 mission was the first crewed landing on the Moon. Three astronauts were launched towards the Moon atop a Saturn V rocket. Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins deployed instruments on the Moon, captured photographs, and collected samples.
In an address at Rice University on September 12, 1962, then United States President John F Kennedy had informed the public about his goal to land a man on the Moon before 1970. “We choose to go to the Moon,” he had said. In less than a decade, the Apollo 11 mission was launched, sending the first humans to the Moon.
Zond 7
Zond 7 was launched on August 7, 1969. Its aim was to obtain coloured photographs of the Earth and Moon from varying distances.
Apollo 12
The Apollo 12 mission launched astronauts Charles “Pete” Conrad Jr, Apan Bean, and Richard F Gordon Jr towards the Moon on November 14, 1969. The astronauts blasted off towards the Moon atop a Saturn V rocket.
Just after launch, the Apollo 12 spacecraft was struck twice by lightning. Though this temporarily knocked out electrical power, the problems did not stop a successful mission.
The goals of Apollo 12 included investigation of the lunar surface environment, and enhancement of the capability for human lunar exploration.
The Apollo 12 crew deployed an instrument package and collected more than 34 kilograms of samples, captured photographs of the lunar surface, collected samples of the solar wind, and investigated soil mechanics.
They also retrieved parts of the robotic Surveyor 3 spacecraft that had previously landed on the lunar surface.
The crew performed extravehicular activities (EVA) totalling nearly eight hours, and remained on the lunar surface for more than 31 hours.
Apollo 12 marked the first time human explorers met up with a robotic spacecraft in space, and was also the first crewed lunar mission with science as the primary objective.
Apollo 13
Apollo 13, which was supposed to land in the Fra Mauro area of the Moon, was forced to circle the Moon without landing because an explosion occurred onboard the spacecraft. The crew included astronauts John Swigert, Fred Haise, and James Lowell. While it was supposed to be the third lunar landing attempt, Apollo 13 was aborted after a service module oxygen tank ruptured. However, the crew returned safely to Earth, and NASA gained a lot of experience in rescuing the crew, because of which Apollo 13 is known as a “successful failure”. The mission was launched on April 11, 1970, and returned to Earth after six days, on April 17, 1970.
Luna 16
Launched on September 12, 1970, Luna 16 was the first robotic probe to land on the Moon, and the first to return a sample to Earth.
Apollo 14
Astronauts Alan B Shepard Jr, Stuart A Roosa, and Edgar D Mitchell were launched towards the Moon as part of the Apollo 14 mission on January 31, 1971.
This was the first flight to the Moon after the Apollo 13 mission was aborted.
The Apollo 14 crew carried out the longest list of experiments on the Moon and in lunar orbit as of that time. The astronauts demonstrated that reasonably long distances can be traversed on foot on the Moon.
The crew brought back almost 43 kilograms of lunar samples to Earth.
It was the third mission in which humans landed on the Moon, and was commanded by Alan B Shepard Jr, the man who became the first American in space, on May 5, 1961. He piloted the Mercury spacecraft Freedom 7 on a 490-kilometre, 15-minute suborbital flight.
Stuart A Roosa piloted the command module “Kitty Hawk”. The lunar module “Antares” was piloted by Edgar D Mitchell. Apollo 14 was the first space mission for Roosa and Mitchell.
Apollo 15
Astronauts David R Scott, James B Irwin, and Alfred M Worden were the crew members of Apollo 15, the fourth mission in which humans walked on the Moon. Apollo 15 marked the first time humans drove on the Moon.
The astronauts were launched towards the Moon on July 26, 1971.
Apollo 15 doubled the time spent on the lunar surface, compared to the previous record-holder, Apollo 14.
The goals of Apollo 15 included exploring the mountainous Hadley-Apennine region, making engineering evaluations of new Apollo equipment, activating lunar surface scientific experiments, photography, and conducting experiments related to lunar orbit.
The Apollo 15 astronauts, with the help of the first automotive vehicle designed for off-planet use, explored a more diverse region of the Moon than ever before.
PFS-1
Particles and Fields Subsatellite 1 was deployed from the Apollo 15 spacecraft in lunar orbit to study the plasma, particle and magnetic field environment of the Moon, and analyse the lunar gravity field. It was launched on July 26, 1971, by NASA.
Apollo 16
Astronauts John W Young, Charles M Duke Jr, and Thomas K Mattingly were launched towards the Moon on April 16, 1972, as part of the Apollo 16 mission. At that time, scientists believed that lunar highlands were of volcanic origin. The findings of Apollo 16 proved these assumptions wrong.
Apollo 16 was the first crewed landing in the central lunar highlands. Astronauts made the first spacewalk during the return journey to Earth, as part of Apollo 16.
Though Apollo 16 was the fifth mission in which astronauts walked on the surface of the Moon, it was far from routine. This is because it changed the way scientists think of the Moon.
John W Young, the commander of the mission, and Charles M Duke, pilot of the lunar module “Orion”, landed at the western edge of the Descartes mountains on the Moon, on April 21, 1972.
The command module “Casper” was piloted by Thomas K Mattingly, who also performed experiments in lunar orbit.
The destination for Apollo 16 was different from those for the previous Apollo missions. Three of the destinations were in mare regions, which are flat, dark plains of lower elevation on the Moon, also referred to as lunar seas.
The measurements made and samples collected by Apollo 16 astronauts disproved the hypothesis that the central lunar highlands on the lunar surface were a product of volcanic eruptions in the Moon’s ancient past.
Apollo 17
Apollo 17 was the last time humans landed on the Moon. Astronauts Eugene A Cernan, Ronald E Evans, and Harrison H Schmitt were launched towards the Moon on December 7, 1972, atop a Saturn V rocket, as part of the Apollo 17 mission. The crew reached the lunar surface on December 11, 1972.
The astronauts collected the oldest known unshocked lunar rock. This suggests that the Moon had a dynamo-generated magnetic field in its past. This is a magnetic field generated by a fluid inside an astronomical object.
The crew collected samples of “orange soil” containing volcanic glass, and deployed scientific experiments.
They left a plaque on the Moon which reads: “Here man completed his first exploration of the Moon, December 1972 A.D. May the spirit of peace in which he came be reflected in the lives of all mankind”.
Apollo 17 was the first mission in which a scientist got the opportunity to investigate the Moon firsthand.
Harrison H Schmitt was a geologist and had been part of the backup crew for Apollo 15. He served as pilot of the lunar module, “Challenger”, for Apollo 17.
The command module, “America”, was piloted by Ronald E Evans. Eugene A Cernan was the commander of Apollo 17.
Mariner 10
NASA launched Mariner 10 on November 3, 1973. The first spacecraft sent to study Mercury, Mariner 10 also studied Venus.
Geotail
Geotail was launched by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) and NASA on July 24, 1992. The spacecraft provided information about why Earth’s magnetosphere responds to incoming material and energy from the Sun.
WIND
WIND was launched on November 1, 1994, by NASA, and investigated basic plasma processes occurring in the near-Earth solar wind.
Clementine
NASA launched Clementine on January 25, 1994. Designed to test spacecraft components during extended exposure to space and to study the Moon, Clementine was the first US spacecraft launched to the Moon in over two decades.
SMART-1
The European Space Agency (ESA) launched SMART-1 on September 27, 2003. It was the ESA’s first Moon mission, and studied chemical components on the lunar surface.
Kaguya (Selene)
Kaguya (Selene) was launched by the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) on September 14, 2007, from the Tanegashima Space Center. Its main objectives were to understand the evolution of the Moon, and to develop the technology for future lunar exploration.
Chang’e 1
The Chinese National Space Administration launched Chang’e 1 on October 24, 2007. This spacecraft was the first of a series of Chinese missions to the Moon, and its primary objectives were to develop and launch China’s first lunar orbiter, gain experience for subsequent lunar missions build a basic engineering system for lunar exploration, validate the technology necessary to fly lunar missions, and start scientific exploration of the Moon.
Chandrayaan-1
Chandrayaan-1, India’s first mission to the Moon, was launched successfully on October 22, 2008, from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh. The spacecraft orbited the Moon at a height of 100 kilometres from the lunar surface for chemical, mineralogical, and photo-geologic mapping of Earth’s satellite. It mapped the Moon in various wavelengths from lunar orbit. The spacecraft played an important role in the discovery of water molecules on the Moon.
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter
NASA launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter on June 18, 2009. It was the first US lunar mission in over a decade, and its primary objective was to obtain a three-dimensional map of the surface of the Moon from lunar polar orbit. The LRO is still operational.
Chang’e 3
The Chinese National Space Agency launched Chang’e 3 on December 2, 2013. It was China’s first spacecraft to softly land on the Moon.
Chang’e 3’s lander is still operational.
Manfred Memorial Moon Mission
The Manfred Memorial Moon Mission was launched by LuxSpace on October 23, 2014. It is the first privately funded lunar flyby mission.
Chang’e 4
China launched Chang’e 4 on December 7, 2018. This is the spacecraft to softly land on the far side of the Moon. The lander and the rover are still operational.
Chandrayaan-2
Chandrayaan-2 is the second lunar exploration mission developed by ISRO. The spacecraft consisted of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lander, and the Pragyan lunar rover. It was launched on July 22, 2019.
However, the lander crashed when it deviated from its intended trajectory while attempting to land on the Moon on September 6, 2019.
Chang’e 5
Launched on November 23, 2020, Chang’e consists of four parts: an orbiter, a lander, an ascender and a returner. It is China’s first automated Moon surface sampling probe, and the country’s first to return lunar samples. The orbiter is still operational.
CAPSTONE
Danuri
Artemis 1
Chandrayaan-3